View source for THE DEVIL IS IN THE DETAILS: MUSEUM - Displays and the Creation of Knowledge

= Links =

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= Notes =

== Abstract ==

<i>"This paper  presents  a methodological  framework  for  con-
ducting  research  on the knowledge-making capacity of
museum  displays.  As active  agents  in the production of
knowledge,  museum  displays  are  increasingly  being  rec-
ognized as documents  of significance to the  history  of
scholarly disciplines  and  the evolution  of  ideas.  ln order  to
investigate  how exhibitions  create  knowledge,  a basic
outline of some of the  key attributes  invotved  in creating
meaning in exhibitions is offered.  Building  on research in
exhibition  analysis,  the  h¡story  of collecting,  and  archae-
ological representation,  this  account  emphasizes  how
there  is a complex network  of  factors  that  warrant  consid-
eration when  assessing  the epistemological function  of
museums. [Keywords:  strategies,  exhibition analysis,
museums  and knowledgel"</i>

== Intro ==

<i>"[...] while
within the field  of museum  studies there  is wide  rec-
ognition  of the  important  role  museums  play in
communicating  ideas, there is a general  lack  of aware-
ness in other  fields about the extent to which
exhibitions  '''create knowledge  about  the subjects  they
seek to represent'''."</i>

<br>

<i>"As active  agents  in the construction of knowledge,
museum displays  are increasingly  being  recognized as
discrete  interpretive  documents  of great signifrcance  to
the history of scholarþ  disciplines  and the  evolution  of
ideas."</i>

<br>

<i>"Since  earþ modern  collectors  began  arranging their
collections for  the  purpose of  being  seen  by visitors,  an
interest  in display  was apparent  (see MacGregor  2007;
Moser  2006:1142).  Although  few  chose  to write about
strategies  for display, the  ways in which objects were
presented  was of immense importance  in imparting
identities  upon  collections. "</i>

<br>

<i>"[...]  Falk  and
Dierking (2000:127) observe  how there has been  a
"move  away from the concept  of exhibitions as
merely  spaces  for visually displaying  objects to the
view of exhibitions as '''environments in which visitors
experience  art''', history, nature,  or science."</i>

<br>

<i>"Although  many researchers
have  highlighted  particular  aspects of the exhibition-
ary environment as being important  in  the
communication  of ideas,  such  as space,  lighting, and
the composition  of text  (e.g., Lindauer  2006),  guid-
ance  on assessing  their impact  is limited."</i>

<br>

<i><b>"In order to demonstrate  the  powerful  knowledge-
making  capacity  of museum  displays,  it is necessary
to consider  the diverse  range  of factors  involved  in
the production  of exhibitions  and  how  these influ-
ence  visitor understanding  of particular  subjects. In
addition  to identiSzing  the critical  components  of
displays,  it is also  important to establish  how these
components  complement and  reinforce each other in
a system of representation.  While  often  seen  4s
"props,"  details  such as lighting,  display furniture,
and spatial  arrangement  function as devices that
work  together  to create  an environment  within  which
visitors gain  understandings of culture,  history  and
science,  as well  as concepts  such as "civilization,"
"progress," "racel'  and "gender."  To demonstrate
how the technologies  of presentation deployed  in
museums  are integral to the formation  of knowledge,
a basic  outline  of the categories  that might  be
considered  when  analyzing museum  displays  is pre-
sented.</b>

<br>

This outline is not intended to be definitive  or
prescriptive; it is merely  offered  to give guidance  and
suggestions to those  wishing to explore the complex
relationship  between content  and methods  of pre-
sentation  in museum  exhibition.  It is fully recognized
that contexts  for  analysis  will greatly  vary,  as there  is
an  infinite variety of factors  affecting  the  way displays
are constructed and  interpreted." </i>

<br>

<i>"More  specificall¡  in determin-
ing how  displays  contribute  to the creation  of
knowledge,  '''it is necessary  to carry  out research  on
who  was  responsible  for designing  the exhibit(s)'''  in
question  and to find  out about  their educational or
professional  background. It is also  important to know
about  the '''nature and  history  of the collection'''  being
exhibited,  the  '''motivation  and aims  behind  the  selec-
tion of the  topic(s)'''  for presentation,  the  basis  upon
which objects  were  chosen  for display  (including
what  was excluded), and the  '''intended  audience'''  and
'''planned learning outcomes''' (if any)"</i>

<br>

<i><b>"Beyond  looking at what is physically on displa¡ it is
necessary to consider  all  the details  ofthe display  en-
vironment  in which collections  are presented.  As
noted  above,  this is not an exhaustive  list-anynumber  of details,  however  insignificant, can inform
us about  the theoretical,  political,  and intellectual
values at the heart  of an exhibition. Furthermore,
while  many  elements  appear  to have little  significance
when examined  in isolation, they can assume great
importance  in making statements  about a subject
when considered  in relation  to other details. "</b></i>

== Architecture,  Location,  Setting ==

<i>"The  architectural  style  of the  building  in which  exhi-
bitions are  presented, and  the  location and  setting  of
museums  are  key factors  in evaluating  the  epistemo-
logical significance  of museum  displays. As noted  by
Lord  and  Lord  (2002:69),  <b>visitor experience  "begins
as the visitor  approaches  and  enters  the museum,"</b>
with the  physical  reality of the site,  the architectural
presence  of the  museum, and  its location all convey-
ing messages  about the  contents  of the museum.  The
features  and iconic  status  of museum  buildings  are
important because  they can influence  how collections
are  perceived,  as  can the  location  of museums in cities
or rural  environments,  and in purpose-built  struc-
tures or reconstructed  ancient  sites<i>"

<br>

=== Neoclassical buildings ===

<i>" Exhibitions housed in great  neoclassical  buildings,  for instance,
imbue  displays with a degree  of authority  and  influ-
ence. Neoclassical  architecture  has a legacy and presence  that informs visitors they  are entering  a
"Temple  of Learning,"  and  that what they see is im_
portant  and  true. Such  buildings can have  particular
significance  for shaping the way  Western and non_
Western  cultures  are  perceived."</i>

=== Questions ===

<i><b>
*"How does the architecture  relate historically  and  culturally to the display?  
*"Does  the  style of the building emphasize  a cultural  contrast between  the "host" or custodian  of  the collection and  the objects  on display?"
*"Does the  architecture  assign  an integrity or authority to the display  or indeed  undermine  it?"</b></i>

== Space ==

<i>"The space in which exhibitions  are laid out is a fun-
damental  part of the way  displays  are  perceived.  Space
does  not simply  refer to the physical  parameters  of
the room in which  objects are displayed,  but includes
'''consideration of the way visitor movement is directed or guided  within  that  space'''.  The spatial  aspects  of display  also refer  to '''exhibition  layout''',  which  is dis-
cussed  below. As Falk  and Dierking  (2000:123)
observe,  at the "level  ofthe  exhibit, at  the level ofthe
exhibition,  and  finally  at the level of the  building, the
visitor's  experience  is influenced by the creation of
space."  Furthermore, as  Swain  (2007:226)  notes, "use
of space influences  which parts  of the exhibition  are
used  and viewed  and  in which  ways."</i>

<br>

<i>" A basic starting point  for
analysis  is the  size of the  gallery  or rooms  in which the
displays  are presented  and  a comparison  of the  pri-
mary  and secondary  exhibition  areas  within
exhibitions.  While  displays  in large  galleries  can  ap-
pear  more  grand and thus  assume  more  importance
and authority,  those in small  rooms can  offer a "scale
of viewing" that  is more intimate  and  less  intellectu-
ally intimidating.  Furthermore,  in  large  galler-
ies,  displays can adopt a more public  character where
visitors  get a sense  of the "big picture,"  whereas  dis-
plays in smaller rooms can offer visitors  a more
private  way  of engaging  with "subplots"  within  the
larger narrative. "</i>

<br>

=== Big vs Small exhibition Space ===

<i>" A basic starting point  for
analysis  is the  size of the  gallery  or rooms  in which the
displays  are presented  and  a comparison  of the  pri-
mary  and secondary  exhibition  areas  within
exhibitions.  '''While  displays  in large  galleries  can  appear  more  grand and thus  assume  more  importance and authority,  those in small  rooms can  offer a "scale of viewing" that  is more intimate  and  less  intellectually intimidating.'''  Furthermore,  '''in  large  galleries,  displays can adopt a more public  character where visitors  get a sense  of the "big picture,"  whereas  displays in smaller rooms can offer visitors  a more private  way  of engaging  with "subplots"'''  within  the
larger narrative. Related  to this  is the way  in which
large open  spaces  enable  visitors  to see  the whole ex-
hibition  at  a glance,  an  experience  that can  in itself  be
highlyvisual or esthetic.  In this sense,  '''large  spaces  can be  seen  as more impersonal,  focusing on the presentation  of grand  authoritative  accounts, while  small galleries  offer "stories"  that  can  be engaged with  on a more  personal  and  questioning  level.'''"</i>

<br>

<i>" Viewing rows of artifacts  '''in large galleries, for  example, endows these  objects  with  a sense of detachment  where  they  are seen  as  representatives of a wider historical  sequence  or system.  In contrast, viewing  one  statue in a small room  can result  in the object  being perceived  in a more  familiar way and suggest  the culture  represented  was  less formal than assumed.''' "</i>

<br>

=== Lined up objects vs non systematic display ===

<i>"Similarly  <b>objects  lined up along  the  wall  in
long thin galleries  can encourage  visitors  to walk  past
in a parade-like  fashion  and imbue the collection
with  a sense  of formality  and military-like structure.</b>
The <b>same objects presented in a less  systematic man-
ner in a circular  space  can encourage  a less  detached
impression of the culture  being  portrayed</b>. In this
sense,  visitors  might feel more  connected  to cultures
represented in such  a way  and, accordingly  feel  more
comfortable  about  judging  their attainments."</i>

=== Questions ===

<i>

*"What  is the  size  and  shape of rooms  used? "
*"Is there  a clear demarcation  between primary  and secondary display spaces?" 
*"What  kind  of entrance  space  is used?" 
*"Are  different  parts  of the  collection accorded dif[erent  types  of rooms?" 
*"Are  the rooms of equitable  size with other galleries  displaying related collections? Do visitors see the entirety  of displays  at a glance  or are some displays  obscured  so as to enhance  their  impact?""</i>

== Design, Color, Light ==

=== Architecture/Design ===

<i>"A critical  factor in display  analysis  is the "look" or
design  quality  of the galleries and  rooms in which
exhibitions  are  presented.  This aspect  of display  is
important  because <b>styles  of decoration  can  situate  or
contextualize the objects  on display  or, alternatively
clash or contrast with  the  exhibits</b>.  In historic build-
ings,  design schemes  that have  been  retained  to
complement  the architecture can be incompatible
with the message  of the exhibition and imbue  the
objects with  a sense  of discordance. "</i>

=== Gallery interiors ===

===== Ceiling =====

<i>"classically  inspired  ceilings  can assert  the esthetic
appearance  of antique  statuary  or emphasize  the per-
ceived "primitive"  qualities  of indigenous  art."</i>

==== Interior Design elements ====

<i>"Interior
design  elements are  also important  in conveying  a sense
of atmosphere,  with more ornately  decorative  schemes
providing  a visually  appealing setting  that in itseH can
be a feature  of the  display  and  neutral schemes  im-
parting the collection with a  more modern
"minimalist" feel."</i>

==== Furniture ====

<i>"Display furniture  is also relevant  here  as  cabinets,
shelves, plinths,  pedestals,  and stanchions  can situate
objects and cultures  within  a particular  intellectual
framework. For  instance, historic wooden cabinets
can deflne  objects  as curiosities. Ultramodern  de-
signer cases  in steel and  glass,  in contrast,  can  impart
objects with an  identity  as commodities-encourag-
ing  us to see them like consumer products  in a shop
window."</i>


==== Questions ====

<i>
*"Is the collection  housed  in a major gallery endowed  with  strong design features,  or in a smaller room or set of rooms  with  less ornate  decoration?"
*"Have  new decorative  elements  been introduced  in association  with the installation of the collection?"
*"How does the decoration  relate to the objects  on display?"
*"Has  a style  of decoration  been  used  to enhance  the esthetics of the  display? 
*"How  are the ceilings,  floors,  and walls  decorated?</i>

=== Colors ===

<i>"Use  of color  is a key  component  in the design  of
display  spaces.  The coloring  of the  walls  of the  room
in which collections  are arranged  and  of the other
features  of the display can  lend  a particular meaning
or association  to objects  and affect  visitors  emotion-
ally. Color  palettes  can endow  exhibitions with
symbolic significance  and  evoke historical  periods,
such as red for exhibitions  on Chinese  artifacts.  Fur-
thermore, the choice of color can also convey a mood
that might enhance or contradict the  message of an
exhibition."</i>

==== Questions ====

<i>
*"Was  a particular color chosen  in order  to elicit a response  from  visitors or as  a neutral  backdrop?"
*"Does the choice  of color  represent  general  trends  in museum  design  or contemporary  design,  or is it based on the nature of the  topic?"
</i>

=== Light ===

<i>"As
observed  by Lord and  Lord (2002:437438),  light is a
"key  interpretative  tool.  Subtle  variations  in light  le-
vel,  color,  direction,  and intensity  provide visual  clues
that can almost  subliminally  inform  the exhibition
visitor  about  time,  place, and other  pieces  of con-
textual  information."  In addition  to guiding  visitors,
use of light creates atmosphere  or ambience,  and the
light's  source, direction,  and  intensity  can have  a significant effect in defining  objects  as important,  high-
status artifacts, as esthetic  "masterpieces,"  or as
mundane  examples  representing a general  class of ob-
jects."</i>

====  Individual  lighting of objects vs global lighting  ====

<i>"For instance,  the individual  lighting of objects
elevates  their status,  suggesting  these  items  should be
revered  and  respected,  whereas poorty  lit objects  are
perceived  as less  significant. "</i>

==== Dark Lighting ====

<i>"Darkly  lit
rooms, for instance,  can promote  a sense  of wonder-
ment  and  serve  to define objects  or collections  as
mysterious  and  intriguing."</i>

==== Questions ====

<i>
*"What type  of lighting  arrangement was  provided  for the collection?
*"What effects  do  both  artificial  and natural  lighting have on how the objects  appear  (e.g.,  top-lighting,  side-lighting, windows, sþlights)?"
*"How  are particular  objects or groups  of objects  singled  out through  lighting strategies?"
*"Does  the  lighting  lend  a particular  interpretation  of the  displays?"
</i>

== Subject,  Message,  Text ==

=== Chronological vs Thematic arrangement ===

<i>"For instance,  structuring the  arrangement of objects
in a chronological  as opposed  to thematic manner
can make  statements  about  the level  of cultural  at-
tainments  of  particular cultures.  Visitors  can
interpret collections  presented in this way in terms  of
the  "rise  and  fall"  of civilization  or, similarl¡  as
symbols  of progress  or decay. Witcomb  (2003:128)
critiques  this traditional  practice of presenting  a sin-
gular  narrative  where  visitors  are  encouraged to move
through  the exhibition  in one  direction,  following  a
clear sequence  of exhibits."  <br>

"As opposed  to this, thematic  exhibitions  can single  out and highlight
particular subsets of material,  encouraging  visitors  to
take  a more active role  in interpreting  aspects  of a
culture  they  find meaningful."</i>

=== Text ===

==== Academic vs Journalistic writting ====

<i>"text written in
an academic  and scholarly  way can  impart  an ele-
vated  status  upon  objects,  emphasizing  how special
expertise is required  to understand  them. Exhibitions
using  this  style  have an authoritative  voice,  which,
beyond assigning  the objects  with  a sense  of impor-
tance  and intellectual value,  can  intimidate  visitors
and  render them  more  passive  in their interaction  with
the exhibition.  Contrarily,  a journalistic  style can im-
part  objects  with  a more  accessible  nature,  facilitating
greater visitor  engagement."</i>

==== Interpretive writting ====

<i>"Discussions  on the  use  of text  in exhibitions  have
emphasized  how museum  displays  should  not present
text in a "book-like"  way (e.g.,  Moore  1997).  They  have
instead  encouraged  use  of more  "interpretive"  ap-
proaches  to writing  exhibition  text,  which  make clear
the "big idea"  at the heart  of the exhibition  (Serrell
1996).  Here, objects  are not  simply presented  in terms
of their  original  function, but take  on an identity as
usefi.rl  "didactic  aids."  For example,  if the  politicaþ
sensitive  context  in which skeletal  remains  have  been
studied  is referred  to in text  panels  accompanying hu-
man  bones,  these  objects  instantly  become  powerfrrl
statements  on the  study of human  history  and evolu-
tion (on the representation  of race in museums,  see
Scott  2007). "</i>

==== Text style and appearance ====

<i>" Furthermore, the style  or appearance  of
the  text can impart  meanings  on objects;  traditional
fonts  reinforce  the conservative  nature  of some  topics,
whereas  the use of modern  typography  can confer a
contemporary  pop-culture  status  upon objects."</i>

==== Questions ====

<i>
*"To what  ertent  has  text been  used in the exhibition?  
*"Who  has written  the text and is their authorship  apparent?  
*"What  are  the  sources  for the  text?
*"Is the style  of writing scholarþ  or more  creative  and proseJike?
*"Is the text  informative  and  descriptive  or does it offer interpretations  and opinions?
*"Has visitor input  informed  the writing  of the text?  
*"What  kind of titles  and subtitles are used-descriptive, catch¡ or questioning?
*"What is the graphic  style  of  the text?  
*"What is the  nature of  the introductory  or orientation text and how does  it set the tone of the exhibition and give a sense  of what  lies ahead?
*"Finally have supplementary leaflets,  floor plans,  and visitor  guides been used  and,  ifso,  how do  they advance  the message of the  exhibition?"</i>

=== Layout ===

==== Busy layout vs Minimal Layout ====

<i>" Although the  Renaissance  trend  of using
every  available  surface  for display  had the effect  of
<b>designating objects as "curiosities</b>,"  contemporary
trends in limiting  the number  of items on display
have <b>emphasized  the  value of objects</b>  as  informative
documents  for communicating  specific  meanings.
The cluttering  of objects and  the "visual  spectacle"
approach  to display  layout  can serye to <b>define collec-
tions  as treasure  hoards</b>. The minimalist  art-gallery
approach  sees objects presented  as <b>esthetic  icons</b>  and
<b>powerful  symbols of cultural  identity</b>."</i>

==== Displays distribution and variations ====

<i>"Furthermore, strategies  for the placement  of displays within  the
exhibition space  can render  entire  collections  as relics
and  trophies or as illustrative  aids  in a historical  nar-
rative.  For  instance, certain  display  environments can
see  objects  acquire  a <b>passive  role</b>, appearing  as inani-
mate  documents in a teleological  account of cultural
progress,  while  others can  elevate them to be more
<b>active participants</b>  in the  exhibition  message."</i>

==== Questions ====

<i>
*"How are  the displays  arranged within the room/exhibition  space?"  
*"How  are  the surfaces  of this  space  used (e.g., walls,  ceiling, floor)?"
*"Are  the objects  aligned or associated with  each other via a particular  formation  (e.g., are they  in rows or clusters)?"
*"Is the space between the objects regularized  or is there no pattern?  Are the objects distanced  from each other or positioned  very  closely?"
*"How are  particular  objects  or sets  of objects connected  or separated? "
*"Are the objects  arranged esthetically  (e.g., is symmetry  a guiding  principle for object  layout)?"

==== Exibition seen vs other exhibitions  ====

<i>"Visual
access  to other  exhibitions  þng beyond  or in immedi-
ate  proximity to the displays  being viewed often  serves
as a comparative  device for visitor interpretation."</i>

<i>"Additionall¡ ele-
ments  of other  galleries might  be  visible  upon entering
an  exhibition,  and  the  glimpses  gained of other  rooms
and  collections  can affect  what  is being  seen. Visual
access  to other  exhibitions  þng beyond  or in immedi-
ate  proximity to the displays  being viewed often  serves
as a comparative  device for visitor interpretation."</i>

=== Display Types ===

<i>"Beyond  original objects  or artifacts,  a
multitude  of other display elements  can be used,  in-
cluding  reproductions  or casts,  modern  material
culture  (often used as an interpretive  aid for con-
textualizing ancient artifacts), graphics (including
illustrations,  maps,  photographs,  and pictorial and computer  reconstructions), models,  dioramas,  audio-
visuals (video  footage, soundtracks),  interactives
(computer  presentations, educational activities,
games),  stor¡elling/re-enactment, audio-guides,  sen-
sory  displays  focusing on  smell  and  touch,  and  modern
artworks (used  as an "intervention"  or mode  of dialog
with antiquities, ethnographic,  and  natural history
collections)."</i>

==== Questions ====

<i>
*"What  is the  range of display  types used?"
*"Has this been  determined in relation  to the subject  and intended  audience?"
*"How do the displays function  as interpretative  aids  (e.g.,  is an attempt made  to contextualize  objects)?"
*"Are the display  types used  in the  exhibition  distinctive  to the collection and not typically used in the presentation  of other types of collections?"
*"What  is the role of images  in comparison  to other types of display?"
*"How have  images  been used  in the exhibition  (e.g.,  do they reinforce  statements  made in the text or are they iconic  images  used to attract  attention)?"
*"What is the illustrative  style used  in the graphics?*</i>

=== Exhibition  Type/Style ===

==== Themed/idea-oriented vs objectled exhibitions ====

<i>" While  the former  makes  selective use of
collections  in order to tell a story and is seen  as more
interpretive,  the  latter  seeks  to present  a wider  subject
area  using significant  parts of collections and is per-
ceived  as more descriptive.  This distinction  is, of
course,  highly problematic,  as general  object-led  ex-
hibitions are just  as selective  as idea-oriented  ones.
Explicit  messages  about a topic may  not have been
intended  by those curating  and designing  collection-
based  displays, yet implicit messages  about  classes  of
objects  can often be conveyed."</i>

<br>

<i>""Bringing  object  and  viewer  close
together is the  most important  function  of museum
exhibition"  (Belcher  1991:38)"</i>

==== Didactic  vs  discovery exhibition ====

<i>"For  instance,  a didactic  display will  focus  on
identifring  the learning objectives  of the exhibition and
design  instructional sequences  relevant to these. Based
on the recognition  of different leaming  styles,  discovery-
oriented  exhibitions  can see  their subjects presented  in
more  creative ways.  With a strong  emphasis  on interac-
tive  modes  of engaging  with  exhibits,  discovery-based
exhibitions  can define topics  in science,  such  as evolu-
tion, as highly  relevant  to our  everyday  lives in the
present.  Other  exhibition tlpes include  esthetically  ori-
ented  ones, where  visitors  are  encouraged  to see  objects
as artworks  and where  the  visual impact of  the  object is
important.  With a lack of interpretive  aids and the lim-
itation of text to a minimum, esthetic  exhibitions  tend
to define  the artifacts  on display  as objects ofbeauty  and
can deny their status as historic¿l and  cultural  docu-
ments."</i>

==== Contextual, immersive, or atmospheric exhibitions  ====

<i>"some exhibitions  can  be classified as
contextual, immersive,  or atmospheric  (i.e.,  f,rlly  recon-
structed qfribition environments),  where  efforts  have
been  made to contextualize  objects  in relation  to their
original  function  and where visitors  are  encouraged  to
experience  as opposed to  passiveþ  observe  displays (e.g.,
living  museums  peopled  with re-enactors,  social  history
museums  with reconstructed  street  scenes"</i>

==== Questions ====

<i>
*"Is there  a clear  sense of exhibition  style or have a combination  of styles been used?"
*"How does  the exhibition style  confer  meaning upon  the objects  on display?" 
*"Is the style  compatible with  the  subject?"
*"Does  the learning  style  create  understanding  through association  more  than through the display  of collections of objects?"
</i>

=== Audience and  Reception ===

==== Questions ====

<i>
*"How  do visitors  engage  with  the  displays?"  
*"Are they  deferential or do they appear comfortable  and familiar  with the subject  matter  and  objects?"  
*"How  does  visitor  behavior affect other visitors  viewing  the galleries?"  
*"How do visitors, both  professional  and  nonprofessional, write about the displays?"</i>

== Conclusion ==

<i>"Although museologists  are all  too aware  of the power
of exhibitions in communicating  ideas, <b>there  is less
recognition  of the  role museum displays have  in creating  ideas.</b>  Furthermore,  although  much has been
written  on the  selection  of appropriate  exhibition  el-
ements  to communicate  ideas,  there is a <b>lack  of reflection  upon  the  importance  of exhibition  in con-
tributing  to intellectual  developments.</b>
<br>
<b>Displays  create  new  worlds for objects  to inhabit
and  these  worlds  are  full  of "devilish  details" that
really  matter  when  it comes  to creating  a system  of
meaning  relating  to the subject being  represented.  Far
beyond  being mere trifles  in the scheme  of manufac-
turing knowledge,  the attributes  of museum  display
have  long asserted  themselves  as key epistemic
devices."</b><i>