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Abstract

"This paper presents a methodological framework for con- ducting research on the knowledge-making capacity of museum displays. As active agents in the production of knowledge, museum displays are increasingly being rec- ognized as documents of significance to the history of scholarly disciplines and the evolution of ideas. ln order to investigate how exhibitions create knowledge, a basic outline of some of the key attributes invotved in creating meaning in exhibitions is offered. Building on research in exhibition analysis, the h¡story of collecting, and archae- ological representation, this account emphasizes how there is a complex network of factors that warrant consid- eration when assessing the epistemological function of museums. [Keywords: strategies, exhibition analysis, museums and knowledgel"

Intro

"[...] while within the field of museum studies there is wide rec- ognition of the important role museums play in communicating ideas, there is a general lack of aware- ness in other fields about the extent to which exhibitions create knowledge about the subjects they seek to represent."

"As active agents in the construction of knowledge, museum displays are increasingly being recognized as discrete interpretive documents of great signifrcance to the history of scholarþ disciplines and the evolution of ideas."

"Since earþ modern collectors began arranging their collections for the purpose of being seen by visitors, an interest in display was apparent (see MacGregor 2007; Moser 2006:1142). Although few chose to write about strategies for display, the ways in which objects were presented was of immense importance in imparting identities upon collections. "

"[...] Falk and Dierking (2000:127) observe how there has been a "move away from the concept of exhibitions as merely spaces for visually displaying objects to the view of exhibitions as environments in which visitors experience art, history, nature, or science."

"Although many researchers have highlighted particular aspects of the exhibition- ary environment as being important in the communication of ideas, such as space, lighting, and the composition of text (e.g., Lindauer 2006), guid- ance on assessing their impact is limited."

"In order to demonstrate the powerful knowledge- making capacity of museum displays, it is necessary to consider the diverse range of factors involved in the production of exhibitions and how these influ- ence visitor understanding of particular subjects. In addition to identiSzing the critical components of displays, it is also important to establish how these components complement and reinforce each other in a system of representation. While often seen 4s "props," details such as lighting, display furniture, and spatial arrangement function as devices that work together to create an environment within which visitors gain understandings of culture, history and science, as well as concepts such as "civilization," "progress," "racel' and "gender." To demonstrate how the technologies of presentation deployed in museums are integral to the formation of knowledge, a basic outline of the categories that might be considered when analyzing museum displays is pre- sented.

This outline is not intended to be definitive or prescriptive; it is merely offered to give guidance and suggestions to those wishing to explore the complex relationship between content and methods of pre- sentation in museum exhibition. It is fully recognized that contexts for analysis will greatly vary, as there is an infinite variety of factors affecting the way displays are constructed and interpreted."

"More specificall¡ in determin- ing how displays contribute to the creation of knowledge, it is necessary to carry out research on who was responsible for designing the exhibit(s) in question and to find out about their educational or professional background. It is also important to know about the nature and history of the collection being exhibited, the motivation and aims behind the selec- tion of the topic(s) for presentation, the basis upon which objects were chosen for display (including what was excluded), and the intended audience and planned learning outcomes (if any)"

"Beyond looking at what is physically on displa¡ it is necessary to consider all the details ofthe display en- vironment in which collections are presented. As noted above, this is not an exhaustive list-anynumber of details, however insignificant, can inform us about the theoretical, political, and intellectual values at the heart of an exhibition. Furthermore, while many elements appear to have little significance when examined in isolation, they can assume great importance in making statements about a subject when considered in relation to other details. "

Architecture, Location, Setting

"The architectural style of the building in which exhi- bitions are presented, and the location and setting of museums are key factors in evaluating the epistemo- logical significance of museum displays. As noted by Lord and Lord (2002:69), visitor experience "begins as the visitor approaches and enters the museum," with the physical reality of the site, the architectural presence of the museum, and its location all convey- ing messages about the contents of the museum. The features and iconic status of museum buildings are important because they can influence how collections are perceived, as can the location of museums in cities or rural environments, and in purpose-built struc- tures or reconstructed ancient sites"

Neoclassical buildings
" Exhibitions housed in great neoclassical buildings, for instance, imbue displays with a degree of authority and influ- ence. Neoclassical architecture has a legacy and presence that informs visitors they are entering a "Temple of Learning," and that what they see is im_ portant and true. Such buildings can have particular significance for shaping the way Western and non_ Western cultures are perceived."
Questions

"How does the architecture relate historically and culturally to the display?

"Does the style of the building emphasize a cultural contrast between the "host" or custodian of the collection and the objects on display?"

"Does the architecture assign an integrity or authority to the display or indeed undermine it?"
Space
"The space in which exhibitions are laid out is a fun- damental part of the way displays are perceived. Space does not simply refer to the physical parameters of the room in which objects are displayed, but includes consideration of the way visitor movement is directed or guided within that space. The spatial aspects of display also refer to exhibition layout, which is dis- cussed below. As Falk and Dierking (2000:123) observe, at the "level ofthe exhibit, at the level ofthe exhibition, and finally at the level of the building, the visitor's experience is influenced by the creation of space." Furthermore, as Swain (2007:226) notes, "use of space influences which parts of the exhibition are used and viewed and in which ways."

" A basic starting point for analysis is the size of the gallery or rooms in which the displays are presented and a comparison of the pri- mary and secondary exhibition areas within exhibitions. While displays in large galleries can ap- pear more grand and thus assume more importance and authority, those in small rooms can offer a "scale of viewing" that is more intimate and less intellectu- ally intimidating. Furthermore, in large galler- ies, displays can adopt a more public character where visitors get a sense of the "big picture," whereas dis- plays in smaller rooms can offer visitors a more private way of engaging with "subplots" within the larger narrative. "

Big vs Small exhibition Space
" A basic starting point for analysis is the size of the gallery or rooms in which the displays are presented and a comparison of the pri- mary and secondary exhibition areas within exhibitions. While displays in large galleries can appear more grand and thus assume more importance and authority, those in small rooms can offer a "scale of viewing" that is more intimate and less intellectually intimidating. Furthermore, in large galleries, displays can adopt a more public character where visitors get a sense of the "big picture," whereas displays in smaller rooms can offer visitors a more private way of engaging with "subplots" within the larger narrative. Related to this is the way in which large open spaces enable visitors to see the whole ex- hibition at a glance, an experience that can in itself be highlyvisual or esthetic. In this sense, large spaces can be seen as more impersonal, focusing on the presentation of grand authoritative accounts, while small galleries offer "stories" that can be engaged with on a more personal and questioning level."

" Viewing rows of artifacts in large galleries, for example, endows these objects with a sense of detachment where they are seen as representatives of a wider historical sequence or system. In contrast, viewing one statue in a small room can result in the object being perceived in a more familiar way and suggest the culture represented was less formal than assumed. "

Lined up objects vs non systematic display
"Similarly objects lined up along the wall in long thin galleries can encourage visitors to walk past in a parade-like fashion and imbue the collection with a sense of formality and military-like structure. The same objects presented in a less systematic man- ner in a circular space can encourage a less detached impression of the culture being portrayed. In this sense, visitors might feel more connected to cultures represented in such a way and, accordingly feel more comfortable about judging their attainments."
Questions

"What is the size and shape of rooms used? "

"Is there a clear demarcation between primary and secondary display spaces?"

"What kind of entrance space is used?"

"Are different parts of the collection accorded dif[erent types of rooms?"

"Are the rooms of equitable size with other galleries displaying related collections? Do visitors see the entirety of displays at a glance or are some displays obscured so as to enhance their impact?""
Design, Color, Light
Architecture/Design
"A critical factor in display analysis is the "look" or design quality of the galleries and rooms in which exhibitions are presented. This aspect of display is important because styles of decoration can situate or contextualize the objects on display or, alternatively clash or contrast with the exhibits. In historic build- ings, design schemes that have been retained to complement the architecture can be incompatible with the message of the exhibition and imbue the objects with a sense of discordance. "
Gallery interiors
Ceiling
"classically inspired ceilings can assert the esthetic appearance of antique statuary or emphasize the per- ceived "primitive" qualities of indigenous art."
Interior Design elements
"Interior design elements are also important in conveying a sense of atmosphere, with more ornately decorative schemes providing a visually appealing setting that in itseH can be a feature of the display and neutral schemes im- parting the collection with a more modern "minimalist" feel."
Furniture
"Display furniture is also relevant here as cabinets, shelves, plinths, pedestals, and stanchions can situate objects and cultures within a particular intellectual framework. For instance, historic wooden cabinets can deflne objects as curiosities. Ultramodern de- signer cases in steel and glass, in contrast, can impart objects with an identity as commodities-encourag- ing us to see them like consumer products in a shop window."

Questions

"Is the collection housed in a major gallery endowed with strong design features, or in a smaller room or set of rooms with less ornate decoration?"

"Have new decorative elements been introduced in association with the installation of the collection?"

"How does the decoration relate to the objects on display?"

"Has a style of decoration been used to enhance the esthetics of the display?

"How are the ceilings, floors, and walls decorated?
Colors
"Use of color is a key component in the design of display spaces. The coloring of the walls of the room in which collections are arranged and of the other features of the display can lend a particular meaning or association to objects and affect visitors emotion- ally. Color palettes can endow exhibitions with symbolic significance and evoke historical periods, such as red for exhibitions on Chinese artifacts. Fur- thermore, the choice of color can also convey a mood that might enhance or contradict the message of an exhibition."
Questions

"Was a particular color chosen in order to elicit a response from visitors or as a neutral backdrop?"

"Does the choice of color represent general trends in museum design or contemporary design, or is it based on the nature of the topic?"

Light
"As observed by Lord and Lord (2002:437438), light is a "key interpretative tool. Subtle variations in light le- vel, color, direction, and intensity provide visual clues that can almost subliminally inform the exhibition visitor about time, place, and other pieces of con- textual information." In addition to guiding visitors, use of light creates atmosphere or ambience, and the light's source, direction, and intensity can have a significant effect in defining objects as important, high- status artifacts, as esthetic "masterpieces," or as mundane examples representing a general class of ob- jects."
Individual lighting of objects vs global lighting
"For instance, the individual lighting of objects elevates their status, suggesting these items should be revered and respected, whereas poorty lit objects are perceived as less significant. "
Dark Lighting
"Darkly lit rooms, for instance, can promote a sense of wonder- ment and serve to define objects or collections as mysterious and intriguing."
Questions

"What type of lighting arrangement was provided for the collection?

"What effects do both artificial and natural lighting have on how the objects appear (e.g., top-lighting, side-lighting, windows, sþlights)?"

"How are particular objects or groups of objects singled out through lighting strategies?"

"Does the lighting lend a particular interpretation of the displays?"

Subject, Message, Text
Chronological vs Thematic arrangement
"For instance, structuring the arrangement of objects in a chronological as opposed to thematic manner can make statements about the level of cultural at- tainments of particular cultures. Visitors can interpret collections presented in this way in terms of the "rise and fall" of civilization or, similarl¡ as symbols of progress or decay. Witcomb (2003:128) critiques this traditional practice of presenting a sin- gular narrative where visitors are encouraged to move through the exhibition in one direction, following a clear sequence of exhibits."

"As opposed to this, thematic exhibitions can single out and highlight particular subsets of material, encouraging visitors to take a more active role in interpreting aspects of a culture they find meaningful."
Text
Academic vs Journalistic writting
"text written in an academic and scholarly way can impart an ele- vated status upon objects, emphasizing how special expertise is required to understand them. Exhibitions using this style have an authoritative voice, which, beyond assigning the objects with a sense of impor- tance and intellectual value, can intimidate visitors and render them more passive in their interaction with the exhibition. Contrarily, a journalistic style can im- part objects with a more accessible nature, facilitating greater visitor engagement."
Interpretive writting
"Discussions on the use of text in exhibitions have emphasized how museum displays should not present text in a "book-like" way (e.g., Moore 1997). They have instead encouraged use of more "interpretive" ap- proaches to writing exhibition text, which make clear the "big idea" at the heart of the exhibition (Serrell 1996). Here, objects are not simply presented in terms of their original function, but take on an identity as usefi.rl "didactic aids." For example, if the politicaþ sensitive context in which skeletal remains have been studied is referred to in text panels accompanying hu- man bones, these objects instantly become powerfrrl statements on the study of human history and evolu- tion (on the representation of race in museums, see Scott 2007). "
Text style and appearance
" Furthermore, the style or appearance of the text can impart meanings on objects; traditional fonts reinforce the conservative nature of some topics, whereas the use of modern typography can confer a contemporary pop-culture status upon objects."
Questions

"To what ertent has text been used in the exhibition?

"Who has written the text and is their authorship apparent?

"What are the sources for the text?

"Is the style of writing scholarþ or more creative and proseJike?

"Is the text informative and descriptive or does it offer interpretations and opinions?

"Has visitor input informed the writing of the text?

"What kind of titles and subtitles are used-descriptive, catch¡ or questioning?

"What is the graphic style of the text?

"What is the nature of the introductory or orientation text and how does it set the tone of the exhibition and give a sense of what lies ahead?

"Finally have supplementary leaflets, floor plans, and visitor guides been used and, ifso, how do they advance the message of the exhibition?"
Layout
Busy layout vs Minimal Layout
" Although the Renaissance trend of using every available surface for display had the effect of designating objects as "curiosities," contemporary trends in limiting the number of items on display have emphasized the value of objects as informative documents for communicating specific meanings. The cluttering of objects and the "visual spectacle" approach to display layout can serye to define collec- tions as treasure hoards. The minimalist art-gallery approach sees objects presented as esthetic icons and powerful symbols of cultural identity."
Displays distribution and variations
"Furthermore, strategies for the placement of displays within the exhibition space can render entire collections as relics and trophies or as illustrative aids in a historical nar- rative. For instance, certain display environments can see objects acquire a passive role, appearing as inani- mate documents in a teleological account of cultural progress, while others can elevate them to be more active participants in the exhibition message."
Questions

"How are the displays arranged within the room/exhibition space?"

"How are the surfaces of this space used (e.g., walls, ceiling, floor)?"

"Are the objects aligned or associated with each other via a particular formation (e.g., are they in rows or clusters)?"

"Is the space between the objects regularized or is there no pattern? Are the objects distanced from each other or positioned very closely?"

"How are particular objects or sets of objects connected or separated? "

"Are the objects arranged esthetically (e.g., is symmetry a guiding principle for object layout)?"
Exibition seen vs other exhibitions
"Visual access to other exhibitions þng beyond or in immedi- ate proximity to the displays being viewed often serves as a comparative device for visitor interpretation."
"Additionall¡ ele- ments of other galleries might be visible upon entering an exhibition, and the glimpses gained of other rooms and collections can affect what is being seen. Visual access to other exhibitions þng beyond or in immedi- ate proximity to the displays being viewed often serves as a comparative device for visitor interpretation."
Display Types
"Beyond original objects or artifacts, a multitude of other display elements can be used, in- cluding reproductions or casts, modern material culture (often used as an interpretive aid for con- textualizing ancient artifacts), graphics (including illustrations, maps, photographs, and pictorial and computer reconstructions), models, dioramas, audio- visuals (video footage, soundtracks), interactives (computer presentations, educational activities, games), stor¡elling/re-enactment, audio-guides, sen- sory displays focusing on smell and touch, and modern artworks (used as an "intervention" or mode of dialog with antiquities, ethnographic, and natural history collections)."
Questions

"What is the range of display types used?"

"Has this been determined in relation to the subject and intended audience?"

"How do the displays function as interpretative aids (e.g., is an attempt made to contextualize objects)?"

"Are the display types used in the exhibition distinctive to the collection and not typically used in the presentation of other types of collections?"

"What is the role of images in comparison to other types of display?"

"How have images been used in the exhibition (e.g., do they reinforce statements made in the text or are they iconic images used to attract attention)?"

"What is the illustrative style used in the graphics?*
Exhibition Type/Style
Themed/idea-oriented vs objectled exhibitions
" While the former makes selective use of collections in order to tell a story and is seen as more interpretive, the latter seeks to present a wider subject area using significant parts of collections and is per- ceived as more descriptive. This distinction is, of course, highly problematic, as general object-led ex- hibitions are just as selective as idea-oriented ones. Explicit messages about a topic may not have been intended by those curating and designing collection- based displays, yet implicit messages about classes of objects can often be conveyed."

""Bringing object and viewer close together is the most important function of museum exhibition" (Belcher 1991:38)"
Didactic vs discovery exhibition
"For instance, a didactic display will focus on identifring the learning objectives of the exhibition and design instructional sequences relevant to these. Based on the recognition of different leaming styles, discovery- oriented exhibitions can see their subjects presented in more creative ways. With a strong emphasis on interac- tive modes of engaging with exhibits, discovery-based exhibitions can define topics in science, such as evolu- tion, as highly relevant to our everyday lives in the present. Other exhibition tlpes include esthetically ori- ented ones, where visitors are encouraged to see objects as artworks and where the visual impact of the object is important. With a lack of interpretive aids and the lim- itation of text to a minimum, esthetic exhibitions tend to define the artifacts on display as objects ofbeauty and can deny their status as historic¿l and cultural docu- ments."
Contextual, immersive, or atmospheric exhibitions
"some exhibitions can be classified as contextual, immersive, or atmospheric (i.e., f,rlly recon- structed qfribition environments), where efforts have been made to contextualize objects in relation to their original function and where visitors are encouraged to experience as opposed to passiveþ observe displays (e.g., living museums peopled with re-enactors, social history museums with reconstructed street scenes"
Questions

"Is there a clear sense of exhibition style or have a combination of styles been used?"

"How does the exhibition style confer meaning upon the objects on display?"

"Is the style compatible with the subject?"

"Does the learning style create understanding through association more than through the display of collections of objects?"

Audience and Reception
Questions

"How do visitors engage with the displays?"

"Are they deferential or do they appear comfortable and familiar with the subject matter and objects?"

"How does visitor behavior affect other visitors viewing the galleries?"

"How do visitors, both professional and nonprofessional, write about the displays?"
Conclusion
"Although museologists are all too aware of the power of exhibitions in communicating ideas, there is less recognition of the role museum displays have in creating ideas. Furthermore, although much has been written on the selection of appropriate exhibition el- ements to communicate ideas, there is a lack of reflection upon the importance of exhibition in con- tributing to intellectual developments.
Displays create new worlds for objects to inhabit and these worlds are full of "devilish details" that really matter when it comes to creating a system of meaning relating to the subject being represented. Far beyond being mere trifles in the scheme of manufac- turing knowledge, the attributes of museum display have long asserted themselves as key epistemic devices."