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| http://www.delpher.nl/nl/kranten/view?coll=ddd&query=%28china+bantammerstraat%29&cql%5B%5D=%28date+_gte_+%2201-01-1916%22%29&cql%5B%5D=%28date+_lte_+%2231-12-1916%22%29&facets%5Btype%5D%5B%5D=artikel&identifier=ddd%3A010366633%3Ampeg21%3Aa0140&resultsidentifier=ddd%3A010366633%3Ampeg21%3Aa0140
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| http://www.madfeed.co/2015/artist-olafur-eliasson-on-the-importance-of-cooking-and-the-kitchen/
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| https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geschiedenis_van_de_Chinezen_in_Nederland
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| http://www.goodreads.com/book/show/770926.Empire_of_Signs
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| https://monoskop.org/File:Barthes_roland_Empire_of_Signs_1983.pdf
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| https://rosswolfe.files.wordpress.com/2015/04/roland-barthes-empire-of-signs1.pdf
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| http://timerime.com/nl/gebeurtenis/829756/Kabinet-Den+Uyl+stelt+wervingsstop+en+generaal+pardon+in/
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| Late 70s my grandfather decided to come to the Netherlands. He and his family were farmers in Hong Kong and life was hard. To search for a better future he was looking for new opportunities and as a result he was told that the condition to open a restaurant were good in the Netherlands. He took my mom, who was the second oldest child out of 9, and her older sister to the Netherlands to start a Chinese restaurant in Dordrecht. The first restaurant my grandfather opened was called 'Kwai Lok'. This restaurant was disbanded in 1985 and they opened a new restaurant called Hong Kong in 1986.
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| My father at the time was working as a chef in an eatery in Fuengirola, Spain. He and my mother got to know each other in the early 80s initially by letter. In 1985 they married and in the same year they had me. Both my parents stayed working in the restaurant of my grandfather. After a few years they started to work in a Chinese restaurant in Breda and in 1990 they took over Chinese-Indisch restaurant 'Choi Sing' in the Hague. They sold Choi Sing In 1999 and became the proud owner of snackbar 'De Neushoorn' in Dordrecht. Choi Sing became defunct and now there is a pizzeria in its place.
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| When you think of Chinese people the first thing that crosses your mind is their cuisine. Chinese is food is well known and embedded in Dutch society. What is less known is that the Chinese community is the oldest ethnic minority in The Netherlands and the oldest Chinese community on the mainland of Europe. In 1911 the first group of Chinese arrived per ship in Katendrecht, at that time a village near Rotterdam. Their arrival had nothing to do with any business related to food, in fact they came here to work for on of the many shipping companies like Lloyd and De Maatschappij usually as a 'stoker' or 'kolentremmer'. Initially the Chinese, of whom all were men, went to the Untied Kingdom to work. Chinese were already working for the English for decades as a result of the peace treaty between the United Kingdom and China at the end of the Opium War (1839-1842). China suffered great losses and in return for peace China had to open up their borders, change their trade policy and allowing Chinese people to migrate and work in foreign countries. Part of the treaty was also to hand over the Island of Hong Kong and the New Territories to the United Kingdom which they returned to China in 1997. Many Chinese at that time were living under poor conditions so the opportunity for them to work abroad was a welcome opportunity. It was easy for them to find work as the United Kingdom needed many workers for their industries domestically and in their colonies. However due to conjuncture of the market there was not always enough work. As a consequence Chinese seek their way into the Netherlands.
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| When the first Chinese men landed in 1911 there was something else at stack. At that time Dutch shipping workers were actually on strike. Out of solidarity harbours workers also joined the strike. Most of the time the vacancies are filled in by Germans and the people who replace the Dutch are called 'onderkruipers'. When a strike ended the 'onderkruipers' were sent home and the Dutch workers got their jobs back. Yet in 1911 this didn't happen for the sole reason that the Chinese workers accepted lower wages and were not complaining about the working conditions comparing to the Dutch workers. This is the start of a permanent stay of the Chinese people in the Netherlands. The Chinese workers that went abroad for work never planned to settle in the countries they went to. Their wish was to work for a few years abroad, save money and go back to their beloved China. As a consequence Chinese workers were not affiliated with Dutch workers in general nor were they aware of any social disturbance their presence caused in society. Dutch workers started to grow hate towards their Chinese collegeous, or 'Koelies' as they were often called, meaning uneducated worker from Asia.
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| The Chinese workers were very disciplined and lived/behaved according a hierarchical structure. On top of the pyramide you have the shipping master. He is in contact with the shipping companies and decides who gets the work. Shipping companies themselves only hire entire crews and by this giving the shipping master a lot of power. The shipping master chooses the number One. He is the leader of a group of workers and is in close contact with the shipping master. To favour the shipping master the Number One had to pay shipping master 5000 guilders and to have a better chance to be chosen as the Number One it helps if you are a relative of the shipping master. The shipping master also choose the people for the other jobs which usually include the job of 'stokers' and 'kolentremmers'. These jobs are physically demanding and people usually didn't get old practicing this job. 'Stokers' and 'kolentremmers' pay a monthy wage as a gesture to the shipping master to thank him for being selected for the job, this is done each time a men was selected for a job.
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| The shipping companies pay up to 5 guilders per crewmember to the shipping master. When workers are not selected for a trip or when there are not enough jobs, Chinese workers are obliged to stay in a boarding house. This boarding house is led by a boarding house master and sometimes this is the same person as the shipping master. The Chinese living in the boarding houses life under pitiable circumstances. They live together with sometimes 15 men in a tiny room in bunkbeds that are devided by a washing line to dry out their clothes.
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| Though Chinese workers were known by Dutch harbour workers the majority of Dutch people were unaware of their existence. Shipping companies knew that the Chinese like any other foreign minority would cause tension in the Dutch harbour community. To avoid problems shipping companies kept them in warehouses on the terrain of the harbours. Inside those buildings the Chinese were able to provide in their basic needs. Even more common for Chinese to live in were boardinghouses. These places became quickly their hideout to sleep, eat and gamble. The first article published in a national newspaper referring to the existence of a small Chinese community in the Netherlands dates back to 1916. The article it states that Chinese en Dutch people live along peacefully in the area of the Buiten Bantammerstraat. The Chinese man is neat, cause no problems and takes care of his own business in such a way as if he is interacting on a ship. Their exotic food, as they serve inside the boardinghouses, attracts anyone that has a taste for anything that is Chinese and the introduction of this kind of food can add to the Dutch taste.
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| Chinese people were always disadvantuous compared to native Dutch people. They had the Chinese nationality so they couldn't claim for social benefits from the Dutch government. When unemployed Chinese workers couldn't fall back on social benefits, like Dutch workers could. To keep their heads up Chinese had to rely on themselves and it helps that an important aspect of Chinese culture is to help your family. Chinese people can count on their family even if that family member is distant to you. All that matters is the family name or the region in China where you came from. Most Chinese that live in the Netherlands are originated from two distinct areas in China, namely Kanton and Zhejiang. In China lineage is very important and this is embedded in how families hierarchically are structured and function. This means for example that you take care of your family even if that person is distant to you. For the Chinese in the Netherlands it meant that there was always someone to whom they were affiliated and who they could ask for help when needed.
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| The only Chinese that actually could apply for benefits from the dutch government were Chinese men that married Dutch women. The Dutch women that fell for the charms of the Chinese men were more used to foreign cultures and were living in areas where Chinese men also worked and lived. These Dutch women were from the lower classes of society and to marry a Chinese man was for them a way out of poverty. Chinese man were in their eyes sophisticated and well mannered; the Chinese man had a good reputation.
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| In the 1930s there was an economic crisis of the 30s and less work was available. At the same time shipping industry was modernizing and as a result charcoal was replaced by fuel, which is more economically acceptable. This meant that no people were needed any more to keep the fire burning or to bring the charcoal to the fires, jobs that were often done by Chinese men. The boardinghouses were bulging and the Chinese had to reinvent themselves again. Ng Kwai, an unemployed seamen, came to the idea to sell 'pindakoekjes' (peanut cookies) in 1931. These cookies were already sold by Chinese men in Indonesia known under the name 'Tengteng'. Soon almost 200 Chinese men were selling these cookies, 5 cent per piece in cities and villages throughout the country. Chinese men are shy and not interested in any interaction with the Dutch, but were now forced by their poverty to do so. Peanut cookies started as a great success, but became early 1933 out of fashion due to the crisis. Meanwhile the Dutch government, advised by police commissioner Einthoven from Rotterdam, started to arrest and deport Chinese people in 1939. Nearly 2000 Chinese, mainly from Katendrecht were deported back to China. At the start of Second World War only 200 Chinese were left in Katendrecht, Chinatown was no longer. From then on Amsterdam inhabited the largest Chinese community in the Netherlands. For the Chinese people that escaped deportation the food industry became their rescue.
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| The Second World War changed the position of the Chinese. When the Netherlands were under German command Chinese people were, for several reasons, not the minority to be picked out. For the first time since 1911 they were no longer subject of society. Instead Germans were reluctant to chase Chinese people because they couldn't distinguish them from their Japanese allies. As a consequence the Chinese had the opportunity to come out of their shell with a new self-awareness and confidence. They took the jobs that were left by jews and other people that were imprisoned and deported by the Germans. Chinese restaurants where able to stay open during the war, there was enough food. The Second World War is for the Chinese people in the Netherlands a new beginning and the start of the popularisation of Chinese food.
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| The year 1950 was the birth of the People's Republic of China with Mao as it's leader. China became a communist country. As a consequence everything that had anything to do with capitalistic values is from now on an enemy of China. This also counted for many Chinese that went abroad to escape poverty, to work and earn money for their families. As a consequence they couldn't go back. In the new China to show of with money is not accepted and many people who owned personal property were forced to hand it to the communist party. The separated families slowly drifted away from each other, the hadn't seen each sometimes for decades and to keep contact was difficult. This new situation of China in a way didn't had a negative effect on the development of the Chinese in the Netherlands. In fact because of the starting popularity of Chinese food Chinese people had a new market to develop. In 1947 this became even more prevalent because of the return of Dutch people and associates, of whom 5000 Peranakan-Chinese, from Indonesia after it's declaration in 1945. These people were used to the Asian kitchen and the Chinese could provide that. Soon the Chinese integrated dishes from the Indonesians, like Nasi Rames, Saté and Babi Pangang. Chinese restaurant owners also changed the Chinese menu more to the taste of Dutch people. The spring roll for example is an equivalent to the 'kroket' and soup is on the menu listed as a starter, but in China it is actually considered as a dessert. The entering of Indonesian dishes became so prevalent that 'Chinese restaurant' on boardings was soon extended to Chinees-Indisch restaurant.
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| Chinese restaurants were initially a huge success. From the first restaurant (name) in Rotterdam in .... (in Amsterdam it was ... in ...) to 250 restaurants in 1960 throughout the country. In 1970 alone in the provence of Zuid-Holland existed 440 restaurants. The food was relatively cheap compared to other cuisines and the food came in big quantities. As a result Chinese food became popular amongst all layers of society, yet Chinese people themselves slowly disappeared out of the restaurants. For them the authentic flavours of Chinese food was gone by the mixing with the Indonesian kitchen and adjustments for Dutch consumers. The 1970s are for Chinese restaurants a time of big changes. Saturation started to occur and the dense competition led to the introduction to more illegal workers. What also didn't help was global recession, less people could affort to eat outside, while on the other side the costs of ingredients went up. The biggest blow for the Chinese restaurants were rumours of lack of hygiene and tax fraud. Suddenly Chinese restaurants were confrontated with an absent of customers and the Dutch ministry of Finance that were keeping a closer eye on their business and who were not reluctant to give high fines. Take into account an old fashioned menu and interior and the rise of other food competitors from other countries that didn't help the situation the Chinese were in. To avoid this all Chinese restaurants tried to distinguish themselves from others by the adding of new dishes, like Crab with Black Bean sauce, Peking Duck and Dim Sum or the specialisation of the kitchen to a specific region of China, like Sichuan or Beijing.
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| Chinese restaurants never reached that popularity they had in their early days. The decline that started in the 1970s, in my opinion never put a stopped. As of today, many Chinese restaurants are disbanded, Chinese people again tried to change their business by overtaking snackbars. Their was a little revival with the All-You-Can-Eat wok restaurants that appeared as big halls to eat. Now Chinese are also into Sushi. Slowly the traditional Chinese-Indonesian restaurant combination is slowly dissapearing out of the streets.
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| Knowing more now of the history of the Chinese people in the Netherlands it is personally interesting to know that my grandfather and his family were part of a second generation wave. Most of the Chinese people before him came here to work in the harbour or for one of the many shipping companies. There wish was to work here for a few years and to go back to China. They never intended to be part of Dutch society and to take the Dutch nationality. My grandfather came to The Netherlands to open his restaurant. From 1973 till 1977 the government of the Netherlands was led by prime-minister den Uyl. His government decided that illegal workers or guest workers could claim for Dutch citizenship when they could prove that they were in the Netherlands before 1974. The recruiting of workers was ended, yet the expansion of immigrants continued because of reunion of families. This applied for my grandfather, so his wife and 9 children were able to come over and gain the Dutch nationality. My father who initially was working in Spain in a restaurant got his Dutch citizenship because he married my mother.
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| The Chinese people that came here, came with the idea to work for a few years, earn money and go back to China. The first Chinese arrived in the Netherlands on 17 juni 1911 in Katendrecht in Rotterdam. In Amsterdam they arrived at the Prins Hendrikkade. Initially the Chinese community in Rotterdam was the biggest, because the harbour was bigger and their were more shipping companies. From the 30s the community of Amsterdam became bigger and is that still today. The Chinese community in Holland are the oldest Chinese community on the mainland of Europe. The early Chinese community was a very closed community. They didn't had much contact with Dutch people, mainly because they lived in closed communities in warehouses and boarding houses. In 1916 a journalist from Algemeen Handelsblad noticed in the Bantammerstraat (Also known as Tong Yan Kai - street of the Chinese) a lively community of Chinese people taking care of each other and living along side Dutch people from there. He went to eat in boardinghouse (name) and discovered the richness of the Chinese food. In the follow up article in the Algemeen Handelsblad he noted that the adding of Chinese flavours to enrich the Dutch cuisine.
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