User:Pedro Sá Couto/Graduate Research Seminar/First Chapter Outline 02

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Chapter 02 Draft

PART 2: Appropriation of watermarks

Point A: Appropriation of techniques that were historically used to append imprints able to grant marks of quality and acknowledgment are now readjusted.
Argument 1 : Watermarking as an aesthetic enhancement, a mark of quality to a user imprint.
Watermarks in libraries and archives
Watermarks in the publishing business
Argument 2 : Library stamps providing a body of evidence for determining both the circumstance and date of acquisition, questioning on ownership and acquisition.
Library stamps in libraries and archives
Stamps in the publishing business

Point B: Tactical Watermarks

1 — Adding memory to a medium
2 — As a means to expression
3 — Watermarks to obscure
4 — Signatures
5 — Display of solidarity
6 — Sensorial Augmentation

Research focus

Examine the repercussion of publishing businesses creating body of evidence against downloaders and how it is opposed to the idea of libraries as a place to access knowledge and to create a community. I will explore what strategies can be reappropriated from watermarks to add provenance to different media. How can we reuse them? What opportunities arise? What modes of address can be formed?

Summary

In this chapter, I will start by addressing how language and techniques from libraries and archives were appropriated by commercial distribution channels as a way to create accountability for users who illegally download, distribute and make available copyrighted material. This is done by leaving imprints like the user geolocation, IP addresses, mac addresses, email addresses, etc. Sharing copyrighted material is easy and one can even do it without acknowledging it. Publishers started to set strategies to limit access to illegal copies. Focused on watermarking in the realm of publishing I will explore what services create and append them. What traces can be left? What kind of information can we spot? Is there any impact on platform users that are constantly reminded that a book has DRM?
I will finish this chapter delving into different strategies on how the process of adding stains can be twisted and revived while commenting about their power to infiltrate, either against social structure, as a way to create relations and communities, augmenting the sense of solidarity, as user signatures, as a way to obscure previous watermarks, for sensorial augmentation and marks of quality.

BODY (3500 words)

SORTING IMPRINTS (1500 words)

Background on Watermarking

The internet as a carrier of digital media changed how we share music, books, video and other media. The integration of digital watermarks is becoming more and more popular to fight the fast-paced spaces opened to share pirated material. The research on watermarks is currently being shaped to strengthen watermarks, embedding robustness with respect to compression, image-processing operations, and cryptographic attacks (Shih, 2017). We now understand watermarks as being both digital and physical but they are not new phenomena and it is relevant to understand where they come from.

The art of papermaking has its roots in China in the 1st Century. The process was first documented in China on 105 A.D. and ascribed to Cai Lun (Basbanes, 2014). Watermarks only appear later in 1282, we trace their beginning in the town of Fabriano (Hunter, 1987). It is important to acknowledge the historical importance of the Italian city of Fabriano. From the name "Fabriano", in Latin "faber > Făbrĭcĭus", meaning “craftsman, artificer, maker” (Latin Dictionary and Grammar Resources - Latdict, n.d.). We can retrace how these practical skills in forging metal and shaping wire were key to building the frames and to start making the first sheets of paper. The process of watermarking then happens while making a sheet of paper whilst the paper is still wet. Watermarks are a result of changing the thickness of a certain part of the paper which would create a highlighted area and its shadow.

The history of watermarks is still relatively obscure. We are not able to fully trace back their ancient significance. A few different theories have been discussed on what was the actual purpose and use of these venerable watermarks. One that I came across with was to help with the production of the sheets of paper. Using them as a way of identifying the size of the frames and the sheets of paper produced by these. (Hunter, 1987)

Another hypothesis is that the craftsmen that were working in the production of the paper were illiterate. Watermarks were then a strategy of appealing with pictures or symbols. This way to communicate an idea would lead to a smaller chance of creating misunderstandings. It is also possible that in parallel these may be an artistic production of the papermakers, a way to identify themselves. "Watermarking originally might have been intended as an aesthetic enhancement, a mark of quality, or a proprietary mark for the papermaker or the wealthy donor or client." (Watkins, 1990) The first applications of watermarks compel all of this, but they can also be no more than a fashionable imprint left by the artists making the frames.

Watermarks are now seen as a way to establish provenance to manufacturers of papers, paper mills and manuscripts. They are also able to provide evidence about the movement of paper across Europe, Africa and the Middle East. We now comprehend how the use of watermarks was a key factor in the recognition of paper quality contributing to the increasing desire of specific papers. We can not establish the provenance of a book immediately to a specific place only based in the watermarks because of the commercial trades of paper. While the Italian watermarks may be present this only sets provenance to where the paper was manufactured and not its afterlife. Watermarks would embody graphics such as animals, plants and sacramental imagery but also were representations of geographical territories and in general representations of the western culture.

For example, the Benedictine monasteries in central Italy [Umbria], who were making paper in the Middle Age, adopted the 3-hilled mount topped with a cross as their symbol [for obvious reasons]. [...] In the early modern period, the French and Venetians developed/adopted the tre lune / three crescent moons watermark – to sell to the Ottoman market with the logic that Muslims were more likely to buy paper with a familiar symbol on it than paper with a Christian cross or other imagery (makingmanuscriptsblog, 2017).

One can create a strong link between them and the introduction of library stamps creating a body of evidence when trying to establish connections in a collection. Library stamps are also perceived as an imprint left, visible and sometimes glued. Able to question ownership and acquisition. In libraries, books were stamped to mark ownership of the book. The relation was created between the physical medium and the library also creating provenance to the collection. They would not relate to its readers nor it was even intended to do so. These connections would happen connecting circumstance of acquisition, date of acquisition and creating relations in the library itself.

"While library stamps are a useful aid in determining the history of a collection item, it has been noted that many items were stamped much later than their acquisition date and mistakes are known to have occurred. Library stamps should provide just one piece of a greater body of evidence for determining both the circumstance and date of acquisition. Clues may also be found on bindings, bookplates or inscriptions." (Duffy, 2013)

A shift in Watermarks

Watermarks got more important with the introduction of paper currency. One of the big shifts I can identify is that when they were first applied to a banknote paper in England by a papermaker named Rice Watkins in 1697. (Mockford, 2014) Added as a way to deter counterfeits, making the act of forging more difficult and enabling easier targeting to the ones who were doing it. In England in 1773, the death penalty was extended to those who would create watermarks with the name of the Bank of England.

"In the modern era, as most data and information are stored and communicated in digital form, proving authenticity plays an increasingly important role." (Shih, 2017)

Just as in paper money, watermarks are now used to establish authenticity and in their digital implementation, these start to get more popular. Emil Hembrooke patented the first digital watermark, “Identification of sound and like signals”, US Patent 3,004,104 Filed 1954, Issued 1961. In the US patent, we can read: " The present invention makes possible the identification of the origin of a musical presentation and thereby constitutes an effective means of preventing such piracy” (J. Cox and L. Miller, 2002).

Pattent https://patents.google.com/patent/US3004104

In the 1990's the interest in watermarks increased drastically, and currently one can find them in various forms of copyrighted watermarks material. Digital watermarks are mostly known as being visual. The normalization of their use in photographs, on video stored in DVDs is a reality by now. In trial software, these also appear often, instead of restricting the use of software what happens is when we are exporting our work these are appended to them.

I read this almost as an arrogant way of advertisement. It feels like we are targeted as if you don't pay you to have to make us public in any other way, it seems a message like we will make money from you in any way possible.

In Publishing

Another big shift I can set is how watermarks are creating a body of evidence on users, adding traces that relate to the subject, more precisely with geolocation, IP addresses, mac addresses, email addresses, etc. A good example of this is phenomena is Verso Books publisher. They created an online ebook store and in an article, we can understand that their watermarks didn't pass unnoticed to its users.

A source interviewed states: "Personally, I felt like I was constantly being sent a stalker's note saying, "I know where you live." It put me off reading the books entirely." (Hoffelder, 2014)

Verso books append a watermark with the IP address of the downloader at the beginning of every chapter, it also creates another imprint in the begging of the books with the downloaders name and his or her email address. The way we are leaving imprints that identify us as downloaders and printers is alarming. Verso Books are calling out their users as pirates and the companies that are making this possible are using us as an asset to capitalize on.

During my research, I came across the company that develops the watermarks to Verso Books. It is a Dutch DRM company called "BooXtream®". It is worrying how they portrait themselves, the first quality that they promote on their DRM methods is traceability. We can read in a bold font: "A publication that has been BooXtreamed can be traced back to the shop and even to the individual customer." (BooXtream | Social DRM To The Max | eBook Watermarking and Personalisation, n.d.) Watermarks are now perceived as something to fear. And used to make us feel uncomfortable. Surveillance might be quickly spotted as it commonly happens with CCTV because we can establish a physical connection with it, we can see it, we can choose a different path to walk from it or even try to disguise ourselves. We were able to accept that digital surveillance is a reality but we didn't feel a close connection to it yet. I consider that digital watermarks are a vehicle establishing this direct connection. It is though still difficult to predict what will be the impact of these techniques if users are afraid to share an ebook that they bought and paid for.

Surveillance in publishing not only manifests itself in visible ways. Another article that I came across was from the Electronic Frontier Foundation raising awareness to the Machine Identification Code. First published by the PC World as "Government Uses Color Laser Printer Technology to Track Documents" in 2004, this code is formed by a pattern of dots that are appended to every printed page. It is added by the printer software in the process of printing. These are almost imperceptible yellow dots carrying information as the date of print, time and the serial number of the machine. Similar technology is used when you try to scan a banknote. A sequence of yellow dots in the printed in the paper triggers the printer to add a striped pattern on the top of the copy, preventing you from copying it.

I delved into trying to understand if they were still in use and I had to actually be able to prove for myself that they existed. I tested methods to identify them, from UV light, with different printers, from HP to Canon, from Inkjet to Lasers printers. Almost when I was giving up I scanned a printed page in a new scanner with 1200 dpi, inverted and they appeared. It is worrying that these are infiltrated in documents and can be seen by anyone. They are not only used in case you are a suspect of a crime, but they are also available for anyone at all times. Being actually able to come across them made me rethink what did it mean to publish in print, how safe is it, and how it might affect the ones who depend on printed forms of publishing.


WATERMARKS OPERATE DIFFERENT ROLES (2000 words)

Introduction to my creative response (500 words)

With watermarks, I describe ways of living within and resist a culture of surveillance in publishing. It is relevant to understand and explore what is like living in a culture of increasing and constant tracking rather than aiming to solve the many problems of surveillance.

During my use of watermarks and more specifically, my creative response, the main objective was to create a positive discourse around the act of watermarking. And still, creating a top layer of information able to embed traces of provenance in different texts.

Challenging centralised distribution channels, and during my role as a researcher, I ventured on how the process of adding stains can be twisted and revived. Stains are what I will call user patches or marks that are difficult to remove and that do not play an active role in archives.

While exploring the process of adding imprints different discourses were arising from this. As a way to obscure previous ones, of commenting on the situation and encouraging behaviours, to create relations and communities, augmenting the sense of solidarity in archives, for aesthetic enhancements, marks of quality, etc.

I aim to link my creative response on the case of digital watermarking to what has been happening in parallel within different cultures, from graffiti culture to "crack intros". Watermarks may form a discourse around topics such as anonymity, borders, archives, and provenance. While rethinking watermarks, exploring their hidden layers and aspect of surprise, visibility or invisibility, on different forms of communicating. I find important to acknowledge that watermarks have the power to infiltrate and perform different roles and to create a parallel stream of information in different texts.

When it comes to publishing, how can watermarks create a critical discourse around the right to access knowledge and represent the ones that fight for it?


1 — Displaying provenance of a medium (250 words)

It is important to consolidate how the term provenance will be used. By provenance I aim to unify all processes that give clues and evidence on, from the moment of its origin until the life span of a medium is. It refers from being able to get information on what might be the source of a text, such as, its place of origin. Until the history of its ownership and even the motivation why an individual made it public. All this stream of empathy, decisions, hidden tasks and actions provide

A way to translate their users. The flow of texts, downloads and to document the platform on itself.
Adding memory to a collection. — Either with date stamps and referring to a collection time frame.
Materializing the hidden tasks of digitizing a book.


2 — As a means to expression (250 words)

(their power of saying that I am here and I disagree)
By commenting on watermarks I am also able to display how it functions as a political mirror to what as been happening to free access to knowledge and information
Adobe Zii uses the quote on its cracked software "why join the navy if you can be a pirate", it is not a reference to the one who cracked it but creates a relation to the actual act of copying, of commenting on the situation and encouraging behaviours
Watermarks as steganography transmission of information hidden or embedded in other data.
"Today, we are of course concerned with digital, rather than analog, communication and media. As in analog media, there is interest in steganographic and watermarking methods that allow the transmission of information hidden or embedded in other data. Several names have been coined for such techniques. However, the terms are often confused, and therefore it is necessary to clarify the differences." (Katzenbeisser and Petitcolas, 2000)
Watermarking vs Steganography
Watermarking additional requirement of robustness against possible attacks. (Stefan Katzenbeisser - Information Hiding Techniques for Steganography and Digital Watermarking (1999)

An important subdiscipline of information hiding is steganography Steganography relates to covert point-to-point communication between two parties

Watermarks have the power to infiltrate and enhact different actions.
Hiding in plain sight as a strategy.
Example 01 : Using Analog tactics with steganography (A Cookbook of Invisible Writing) from Amy Suo Wu. This cookbook introduces recipes to explore alternative forms of communication.
Example 02 : Researchers in China developed technology to undercover messages making them invisible to the naked eye. These only be read with a UV light over the printed medium. Printing technology developments are acknowledging that even digital communications and data security are becoming mAore sophisticated there is a need to develop ways to securely send hard copy messages. (Davis, 2019)


3 — Watermarks to obscure (250 words)

Watermarks that obscure user traces making them accountable, enabling access in this way.
Create parallelism to projects like Secure Drop. Projects like SecureDrop which is a platform that allows sources to submit documents and data while avoiding most common forms of online tracking (Ball, 2014) The creation of spaces to anonymously publish confidential documents.
Anonymizing a file. Watermarking to obscure watermarks left.


4 — Signatures (250 words)

Code signatures, serial killer signature
Crack intro — Demo scene — This text screen is in many ways similar to graffiti, although the so-called crack-intros invaded the private sphere and not the public space. (Cubitt and Thomas, 2009)
Such signatures referred to as “crackscreens” were customarily included in-game title screens displaying the game name, the logo of the producer, and a graphic that provided the player with a glimpse of the game theme. The signatures were originally simple statements, such as “cracked by ...,” sometimes intentionally misspelt as “kracked by ...” (Reunanen et al., 2015)


5 — Creating relations and communities (250 words)

Creating parallelism to the tattoo community. As an example, in the Philippines, a feminist tattoo artist is building a community of people that were tattooed by her. With this link, they feel related to each other. They recognize the style of a particular tattoo communicating empathy among themselves.
As a display of solidarity.


6 — Sensorial Augmentation (250 words)

Using smell
Creating patterns
Watermarks still have space to digital enhancements
We are also able to establish this vision of watermarking with graphic design. these choices as a book as an object by itself, the choice of paper, how you mark different chapters and creating different rhythms and hierarchies.

References

Basbanes, N.A. (2014) On paper: the everything of its two-thousand-year history. New York: Vintage Books.
BooXtream | Social DRM To The Max | eBook Watermarking and Personalisation (n.d.). Available at: http://www.booxtream.com/ (Accessed: 1 December 2019).
Cubitt, S. and Thomas, P. (2009) Re:live Media Art Histories 2009 conference proceedings. Melbourne: The University of Melbourne & Victorian College of the Arts and Music.
Dam, K.W. (1999) Self‐Help in the Digital Jungle. The Journal of Legal Studies, 28 (2): 393–412. doi:10.1086/468056.
Harris, N., Ecole de l’institut d’histoire du livre (Lyon) and Institut d’histoire du livre (Lyon) (2010) Paper and watermarks as bibliographical evidence. Lyon: Institut d’histoire du livre.
Hays, M.L. (1975) Watermarks in the Manuscript of Sir Thomas More and a Possible Collation. Shakespeare Quarterly, 26 (1): 66–69. doi:10.2307/2869274.
Hoffelder, N. (2014) Verso Books Shows That it is Possible to Use Customer-Friendly DRM While Still Calling Customers Pirates. Available at: https://the-digital-reader.com/2014/06/07/verso-books-shows-possible-use-customer-friendly-drm-still-calling-customers-pirates/ (Accessed: 17 November 2019).
Hunter, D. (1987) Papermaking: the history and technique of an ancient craft. New York: Dover.
J. Cox, I. and L. Miller, M. (2002) The first 50 years of electronic watermarking., pp. 26–132.
Katzenbeisser, S. and Petitcolas, F.A.P. (2000) Information hiding techniques for steganography and digital watermarking. Boston: Artech House.
Latin Definition for: faber, fabri (ID: 20146) - Latin Dictionary and Grammar Resources - Latdict (n.d.). Available at: https://latin-dictionary.net/definition/20146/faber-fabri (Accessed: 25 November 2019).
makingmanuscriptsblog (2017) Watermarks! Making Manuscripts in the Medieval and Early Modern World. Available at: https://makingmanuscriptsblog.wordpress.com/2017/10/02/watermarks/ (Accessed: 11 December 2019).
May, M. (1997) INVISIBLE WATERMARKS. American Scientist, 85 (2): 124–125.
Mockford, J. (2014) “They are Exactly as Banknotes are”: Perceptions and Technologies of Bank Note Forgery During the Bank Restriction Period, 1797-1821.
de la Passardière, B. and Bustarret, C. (2002) Profil: An Iconographic Database for Modern Watermarked Papers. Computers and the Humanities, 36 (2): 143–169.
Reunanen, M., Wasiak, P. and Botz, D. (2015) Crack Intros: Piracy, Creativity, and Communication. In 2015.
Shih, F.Y. (2017) Digital watermarking and steganography: fundamentals and techniques. Boca Raton: Taylor & Francis, CRC Press. Available at: http://www.crcnetbase.com/isbn/9781498738767 (Downloaded: 25 November 2019).
Stevenson, A.H. (1948) New Uses of Watermarks as Bibliographical Evidence. Papers of the Bibliographical Society, University of Virginia, 1: 149–182. doi:10.2307/40368928.
Tanselle, G.T. (1971) The Bibliographical Description of Paper. Studies in Bibliography, 24: 27–67.
Woodward, D. (1990) The Correlation of Watermark and Paper Chemistry in Sixteenth Century Italian Printed Maps. Imago Mundi, 42: 84–93.

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